Some Records on Tobacco in Travancore

The few records at the Kerala State Archives on Travancore’s dealings with tobacco demonstrates the changes from late-eighteenth century to mid-to-late-nineteenth century in the significance of tobacco as a, at first, an agricultural import, and later as a staple commodity in the state.

The earliest recorded mention of tobacco (m. pukayila), literally, the leaf that can be smoked, in the Kerala State Archives in Thiruvananthapuram is from the year 1786 during Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma’s reign (r. 1758-1798). The 1780s were a momentous decade for Travancore: attacked thus far from the south by the Nawab of Arcot, a new threat had developed from the North, the state of Mysore under Haider Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan. (Read more about Tipu Sultan’s attack on Travancore here.) Trade was thus more and more important to Travancore as it was forced to defend both its southern and northern borders. Perhaps because of the need for commodity crops, tobacco suddenly appears in Travancore records as a key trading commodity starting in the 1780s.

In 1786, wholesale warehouses (pandakashaala) that sold tobacco existed across south Travancore including the capital where the warehouse was based near the stables. Other warehouses that sold tobacco could be found in Paravur and Vizhinjam. The profits from these were handled and deposited to the treasury by Marthanda Shankaran, possible the collector, and Kumara Saamy Shivan, an official of the treasury.

There’s a distinct possibility that up until the 1820s, tobacco was largely important from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) into Travancore for as late as 1825, Travancore is in communication with the Ceylonese government about tobacco trade. It is only in 1827 that the first mention of tobacco as a crop that requires cultivation is seen in the records: an udambadi (treaty) is pronounced by the crown about cultivating tobacco in Travancore. Another document in 1829 discusses the tobacco plant in greater detail. Perhaps the demand of tobacco went further up after this decade for in 1830, there is once again discussion of importing tobacco from Ceylon.

Between 1830 and 1860, there I found no records of tobacco crop or trade at the archives. But in 1860, a Neettu (court document) decrees that the profit from tobacco trade is to be used towards funding education in the state. We can infer from this that tobacco trade in Travancore was thriving throughout early-to-mid-nineteenth century. However, it seems that by the 1860s, tobacco trade was not directly conducted with Ceylon. A tattered document from 1863 suggests that tobacco import now happened via Kochi and not Ceylon.

The brief summary of tobacco here connects the coastal routes by which trade in commodity crops took place in Malabar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It also highlights Travancore’s commitment to education in the 1860s during Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma’s reign.

The information here is sourced from the following records at Kerala State Archives, Thiruvananthapuram:
Neettus:
Vol. 3, Page 29, 1786 CE
Vol. 18, Page 82, 1825 CE
Vol. 93, Page 30, 1827 CE
Vol. 21, Page 350, 1829 CE
Vol. 20, Page 130, 1830 CE
Vol. 67, Page 35, 1860 CE
Vol. 70, Page 25, 1863 CE
*Some of these records are incomplete

Dating Woes: Where and When in the World was Marthanda Varma's Legendary Bed Made?!

From 2009, I have been trying to figure out when exactly the bed at Padmanabhapuram palace in Kanyakumari distict, Tamil Nadu was made. Known as Maharaja Marthanda Varma's bed, this remarkable object of majestic stature and intricate craftsmanship is a popularly associated with the legend of Marthanda Varma, called "the maker of modern Kerala." 

(For a full set of photos of the palace in Padmanabhapuram, click here)

Bed, Padmanabhapuram Palace, Tamil Nadu

I know, I know, if it is Marthanda Varma's bed, then what's the big mystery! It's easy to think that this bed, must have been made around the time of Marthanda's rule between 1729 and 1750. But, as it turns out, in my many years of inquiry with the state archaeological department, senior archaeologists, historians, everyone at the palace from director to security guards and janitors, I have not only found no conclusive evidence, but instead, I have been told conflicting stories of the bed's origins. Talk about legendary! 

Most people I have spoken with are of the opinion that the bed was a gift from the Dutch East India Company officials in Malabar, although a minority have mentioned Portuguese Jesuits as the bed's donors. At one point, a wooden painted board, advertised this fact to the touring public (see image below) but it has been taken down since. Part of the information provided on the plaque we know is factually incorrect: there is no "Captain Adrian Van Goens" working for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Malabar. There was, however, a Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, a VOC commander stationed in Dutch Malabar in mid-seventeenth century, who worked under Admiral Rijcklof van Goens, who was central to the defeat of the Portuguese in Sri Lanka and southern India. (Note how the two names have been married to create a dashing new name on the plaque.) Commander Rheede was also a person with many interests, and like his peers entertained a scientific curiosity. Rheede with the help of some locals produced the encyclopedic Hortus Malabaricus, the first scientific compendium on India's flora and fauna published in Europe.

So, did van Goens and Rheede present this bed to Marthanda Varma, then? 

If they did, they were 60 years too early, for Travancore, the kingdom that later became part of Kerala, did not exist in seventeenth century. In its place was, its predecessor, the Venad kingdom with their capital at Kollam (Quilon) who were tributaries of the Madurai Nayakas. While sources claim that the oldest part of Padmanabhapuram Palace dates from this time, we do not have much proof by way of visual or archival records. (The "Thaikottaram" considered the oldest structure in the palace complex is dated to fifteenth century by some, but the architecture of the building is, in many ways, quite similar to the other buildings in that complex made in the eighteenth century. I, therefore, doubt the dating of that building.) 

If, as suggested by many, Admiral van Goens presented this bed to the ruler of the region, then it was definitely not the illustrious ruler Marthanda Varma mentioned here. It could be the little known potentate Aditya Varma, whose name I have not seen anywhere in the annals of Kerala history, except on a dubious website that charts a genealogy of "Hindu" kings of Travancore. In reality, we have little to no information at present about seventeenth-century South Kerala until 1677 when a queen, Umayamma, comes into power at Attingal and signs treaties galore with Europeans. So why then, would, the Dutch East India Company officials lug a really heavy bed all the way to the tip of South India, to produce it as a gift, to a hardly known political figure, whose capital was in Kollam, a good 75 miles north of Padmanabhapuram palace?

While I am still seeking answers to the art historical mystery that is this bed, I have discovered in the last couple of years, the existence of similar beds in Portugal were they have been categorized as "Indo-Portuguese" furniture from eighteenth century. Indeed, in its choice of motifs and stylization, one of these beds that I have seen in person in Sintra Palace Museum in Portugal, have a lot in common with the Padmanabhapuram bed. 

Queen's Secretary's Bed, Sintra Palace, Portugal, 18th century

Recently, I have taken another stab at analyzing the origins of the bed and you can read more about that here. For now, from my analysis of the bed, I suggest that this bed was probably given in the eighteenth century to Marthanda Varma by Dutch East India Company, since they were the most powerful European group in Malabar Coast at this time. Further, Marthanda Varma's reign saw multiple battles with VOC, culminating in the defeat of a VOC garrison in Colachel in 1741. (Many historians of Kerala proudly claim this event as the "first defeat" of a European army by an Asian king; I have my reservations about calling the event at Colachel a battle.) Indeed, it was after Colachel that the Dutch agreed to sign a treaty of peace with Travancore, a diplomatic maneuver that took many years between 1741 and when it was officially signed it 1753. Perhaps, the bed was a gift that accompanied one of the drafts of this treaty? 

Parting note: in a separate post, I have argued that this bed was made in Fort Kochi in central Kerala. You can read about that here.